A.
Definition of Second Language Acquisition
The systematic study of how people acquire a second
language (often referred to as an L2) is a fairly rec phenomenon, belonging to
the second half of the twentieth century.
At first sight, the meaning of the term ‘second language
acquisition’ seems transparent but, in fact, it requires careful explanation.
For one thing, in this context ‘second’ can refer to any language that is
learned subsequent to the mother tongue. Also, ‘second’ is not intendedd to
contrast with ‘foreign’. Whether you are learning a language naturally as a
result of living in a country whether it is spoken, or learning it in a
classroom through instruction, it is customary to speak generically of ‘second’
language acquisition. (Rod Ellis, 1997)
So
that, the definition of second language acquisition and learning is
learning and acquisition of a second language once the mother tongue or first
language acquisition is established. Second language acquisition or SLA is the
process of learning other languages in addition to the native language. For
instance, a child who speaks Hindi as the mother tongue starts learning English
when he starts going to school. English is learned by the process of second
language acquisition. In fact, a young children can learn a second
language faster than an adult can learn the same language.
B. Principles of Second Language Acquisition
Clear understanding of
the principles of language acquisition is a basis for modifying and improving
one's teaching. Many have been studied and researched about language
acquisition, yet as for the general principles of language acquisition, it is a
fruitful and promising prospect. Therefore the following may be just a narrow
mind about the language acquisition, so it is an urgent matter to which much
attention should be paid.
1.
Language is Changeable and Vocabulary has an Important Role in Acquisition
All languages are a tool which can be manipulated to serve the needs of those who use it. But language is
always changeable;
it caused
there is no language can
develop without the development of the society.
So that when the society develop, certaintly language
also develop.Natural language has
limitless vitality while artificial language shortens.
Anyone who has lived a reasonably long time will know
that his children and their contemporaries are not using the same words,
grammar and pronunciation that he learned as a child, because each generation
has a different attitude to its language. Young people, especially, use a vast
amount of new idioms, slang, and expressions. As time goes on, the introduction
of widespread education, radio, television, mobile phone, the Internet and the greater mobility of the population, have sped up the process of language changing.
We know that language, oral and written,
come from different varieties. Language varies
according to person, topic, purpose, cultural background and context situation.
Everyone is proficient in more than one of these social varieties of their
native language. Language also varies with respect to regional, social class,
and ethnic group differences. Such language varieties are characterized by
distinctive structural and functional characteristics, and they constitute
legitimate varieties and functional systems of communication within their
respective socio-cultural niches. (Rod Ellis, 1997)
Language acquisition involves the study of vocabulary. Vocabulary has
proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult sometimes.
Wilkins (1972) asserted, “Without grammar very little can be conveyed,
without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.” The lexicologist
McCarthy (1990) echoed the same message that no matter how well the student
learns grammar, no matter how successfully he masters the sounds of a second
language, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in
that language cannot happen in any meaningful way. In most cases, language and
words are linked together closely.
2. Language Acquisition is also Cultural Acquisition
Raymond Raymond
Williams thought that “culture” is one of the most complicated several words.
A. Kroeber & Clyde Kluckhohn listed about 300 definitions for culture in a
book Culture Concept and Definition Statement. Among the definition,
there is one which concerns about culture and language: Language is the
composition of culture, is the load of culture. In short, language and culture
are merged tightly.
Patterns of language
usage vary across cultures and reflect differences in values, norms, and
beliefs about social roles and relationship in each culture. When children
learn their first language, they learn the cultural values, norms, and beliefs
that are characteristic of their cultures. To learn another language is to
learn new norms, behaviors and beliefs that are appropriate in the new culture,
and thus to extend one's socio-cultural competence to new environments. To add
a new language, therefore, is to add a new culture.
Educational programs
must be based on acknowledgement of, understanding of, respect for, and valuing
of diverse cultural backgrounds. It
is important for all language learners to develop
attitudes of additive bilingualism and biculturalism. Without language, culture
would not be possible; On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture and it
reflects culture. Second language acquisition must understand their “language of the mind”
because language acquisition, in fact, is inseparable from culture acquisition.
3. Language Acquisition is A Long–term Process
We know that language acquisition is inseparable from its culture and
culture acquisition can't be acquired in a short time. So language acquisition
needs a reasonably long time. Language acquirer must go through different
developmental stages and gradually grow in proficiency. Individual acquirer,
however, move through these stages at variable rates. Rates of acquisition are
influenced by multiple factors including an individual's educational
background, first language background, learning style, cognitive style,
motivation, personality and so on.
Educational programs
must recognize the length of time it takes to acquire the language skills
necessary for success in school, college or university.
The philosopher and
scientist Francis Bacon
said that Language acquisition
is just like the understanding of the proverbs which needs time and knowledge.
Deep knowledge of culture must connect with the true mastering of Deep the
language.
4.
Motivation is the Stimulation of Second Language Acquisition
Motivation is the
generator to do something. Good motivation can improve work or study of
something. Language acquisition is not a simple job but an affordable work,
which needs long and sometimes painful process. Without everlasting
motivation for it, it is impossible to study well. Of course, it is no use only with motivation but also hard work.
Some experiments show
that holding of motivation can be great help for something. Motivation has
always played as a central place in language acquisition.
When acquirer has a strong need for language acquisition, they will
probably prosper, and vice versa. For inspiring the motivation is an important and useful way for language acquisition.
5. Native Language Proficiency is of Benefit to Second Language Acquisition
In the world, different nations normally have different languages; however,
any language proficiency including native language surely contributes to second
language acquisition because
there is no language that exists without any
rules. One can use one rule in this language and that at some cases. So
that it is useful for mastering
the other language by comparison or imitation. And, in return, in learning a
new language students also learn more about their own native language surely.
Normally speaking, translator or interpreter with good knowledge of native
language can do better than those of worse. Native language literacy abilities
can assist to construct the meaning of second language. They bring this
knowledge to the task of second language acquisition.
6. Social Factors Affect the Second Language Acquisition
Everyone knows that
different people have lived in our society in one way or another. And the
social factors affect our lives and also have a great impact on second language
acquisition but probably do not influence it directly. Instead, their effects are mediated by a
number of variables. One of the variables is the acquirer's attitudes towards the language. Generally speaking,
different attitudes will lead to different result. Positive attitudes will certainly lead to successful learning of the
language which will make the attitudes reinforced; in return similarly,
negative attitudes towards the language will lead to bad result, and in return,
consolidate its negative attitudes.
Another variable is
social contexts. Among them there is international language context. Many languages-in particular English-are now
widely used as international languages. They serve as a means
of communication between speakers of different languages in a wide range of
contexts: business and trade, academic and scientific, media and the arts,
travel, tourism, and
literature. Learners who engage in
international communication that involves the full resources of the standard
language are more likely to develop a higher level of proficiency.
7. Individual Acquirer Differences Differ in Second Language Acquisition
There are five general
factors that contribute to individual acquirer differences in some depth. These
are age, aptitude, cognitive style, motivation, and personality. The commonly
held view that children are more successful acquirers than adults is possibly
because children have a greater memory capacity and are also able to acquirers
focus more easily on the purely formal features of a language. Fathman (1975) found that the order of
acquisition twenty grammatical items remained constant in her sample of two
hundred children aged from 6 to 15 years.
Gardner (1980) has reported that aptitude is a major factor determining the
level of success of second
language acquisition.
Little is known about
how personality and cognitive style influence second language acquisition,
although there is a general belief that both are potentially extremely
important. Cognitive style is a term
used to refer to the manner in which people perceive, conceptualize, organize,
and recall information. Each person is considered to have a more or less
consistent mode of cognitive functioning. “Open” or “close” person in character
is different from acquisition of language.
C.
Theories of Second Language Acquisition
Stephen krashen's theory of second language
acquisition (SLA)
"Language
acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and
does not require tedious drill." Stephen Krashen.
"Acquisition
requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication
- in which speakers is concerned not with the form of their utterances but with
the messages they are conveying and understanding." Stephen Krashen.
Krashen's theory of second language acquisition
consists of five main hypotheses:
1. The
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen has concluded that there are two
systems of language acquisition that are independent but related: the acquired
system and the learned system.
·
The acquired system relates to the unconscious
aspect of language acquisition. Krashen
privileges the acquired system over the learned system.
·
The learned system relates to formal
instruction where students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about
the target language.
2.
The Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor hypothesis seeks to elucidate how
the acquired system is affected by the learned system. When second language
learners monitor their speech, they are applying their understanding of learned
grammar to edit, plan, and initiate their communication.
The amount of monitoring occurs on a continuum.
Some language learners over-monitor and some use very little of their learned
knowledge and are said to under-monitor. Ideally, speakers strike a balance and
monitor at a level where they use their knowledge but are not overly inhibited
by it.
3.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
This hypothesis argues that there is a natural
order to the way second language learners acquire their target language. The order that the learners follow has four
steps:
b. They string
words together based on meaning and not syntax.
d. They begin to
identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange them to produce
questions.
4.
The Input Hypothesis
In its most basic form, the input hypothesis
argues that learners’ progress along the natural order only when they encounter
second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the natural
order. Therefore, if a learner is at step one from the above list; they will
only proceed along the natural order when they encounter input that is at the
second step.
5.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis describes external factors that
can act as a filter that impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation,
self-confidence, and anxiety. Students who are motivated, confident, and
relaxed about learning the target language have much more success acquiring a
second language than those who are trying to learn with the affective filter in
place.
D. Practice of Second Language Acquisition
There are many methods or ways that can be
used to study a second language. Methods or means chosen will depend on how
quickly the master a second language, where we live and how much can we
allocate funds to achieve our goals are. Combination of the methods or ways
below will certainly gave the students a more optimal learning outcomes
compared to just using one method alone.
1.
Learning in The Classroom
When we implement the learning of language both in the classroom, we are
always assisted by a teacher who can provide materials, encouragement and
feedback and can be opposed to practice our second language skills. In order to
organize learning a second language is good in the classroom, teachers need the
resources of an authentic language learning. It is especially needed when we
study a second language in our own country. Sources of learning the language
used should be authentic in terms of pronunciation, intonation, accent and
idiom.
In the absence of language learning resources as such, would be very
difficult for a teacher to be able to convey both feelings and thoughts of
people who use such language as first language. For that when teaching a second
language teachers should only use the voice recordings narrated by native
speakers. Visual teaching materials such as videos or films should also display
an authentic culture of the second person. Do not use a video or movie that
only shows the beauty of the country speaking a second language, but it has
nothing to do with cultural issues of second language speakers. Videos or
movies like that are usually intended only to tourists only. In addition the
teacher / the school is required to provide newspapers and magazines in both
languages because it is a valid reading of two sources and always provide the
latest information about the culture of both.
2.
Learning Self-taught.
This method can be done in a way to buy a CD or DVD learning a second
language that many are sold in bookstores / tapes or can be ordered online via
the Internet. Fundamental weakness of this learning method is the absence of
accompanying teachers, so that when students need to ask, no one can answer.
However, CD or DVD learning a second language is currently being developed in
such a way that students can learn on their own. Student success in learning a
second language by using this method will depend on the seriousness of the
students in the learning and the quality of a CD or DVD learning a second
language students to buy.
3.
The Exchange of Langauge
Learning a second language by using this method requires students to find
native speakers who are studying a second language and who want to learn the
mother tongue or first language of students, so the two can teach each other
their respective languages. This can be done by accessing several sites on
the Internet that offer these services. Another alternative method is to look
for native speakers as a friend to correspond.
A second language teachers should encourage students to correspond with
people speaking a second language. With a lot of correspondence students can
practice how to write the context of everyday situations. In addition students
will be able to exchange thoughts with native speakers of both languages,
understand the attitudes and behavior which is the image and culture.
Correspondence can also provide motivation for students to travel abroad which
is a method of studying the latter.
4.
Traveled and Lived for Some Time Abroad
By traveling abroad or even the opportunity to stay for
some time abroad, students will be able to understand the culture of local
people. He can see and realize the similarities nor the differences between
people and the culture of the nation's culture whose language is being learned.
Besides traveling abroad will also make students able to
communicate using a second language better than just relying on second language
learning in the country, because in this new environment students find no one
able to use the first language, so he "forced "should always use a
second language to communicate with people around him in order to survive.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ellis, Rod. (1997), Second Language
Acquisition, New Zealand: Oxford
university Press;
Krashen, Stephen D. (1982), Principles
and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, University of Southern California: Pergamon Press Inc;
Krashem, Stephen D. (1987), Principle
and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Hall International;
ZhangJianjia, Jianjia Zhang. (2005), General Principles of Second Language Acquisition, Xiangnan University
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar