YayBlogger.com
BLOGGER TEMPLATES

Rabu, 06 Juni 2012

Second Language Acquition (Principles, Theories, and Practice)


A.    Definition of Second Language Acquisition
The systematic study of how people acquire a second language (often referred to as an L2) is a fairly rec phenomenon, belonging to the second half of the twentieth century.
At first sight, the meaning of the term ‘second language acquisition’ seems transparent but, in fact, it requires careful explanation. For one thing, in this context ‘second’ can refer to any language that is learned subsequent to the mother tongue. Also, ‘second’ is not intendedd to contrast with ‘foreign’. Whether you are learning a language naturally as a result of living in a country whether it is spoken, or learning it in a classroom through instruction, it is customary to speak generically of ‘second’ language acquisition. (Rod Ellis, 1997)
So that, the definition of second language acquisition and learning is learning and acquisition of a second language once the mother tongue or first language acquisition is established. Second language acquisition or SLA is the process of learning other languages in addition to the native language. For instance, a child who speaks Hindi as the mother tongue starts learning English when he starts going to school. English is learned by the process of second language acquisition. In fact, a young children can learn a second language faster than an adult can learn the same language.

B.     Principles of Second Language Acquisition
Clear understanding of the principles of language acquisition is a basis for modifying and improving one's teaching. Many have been studied and researched about language acquisition, yet as for the general principles of language acquisition, it is a fruitful and promising prospect. Therefore the following may be just a narrow mind about the language acquisition, so it is an urgent matter to which much attention should be paid.
1.      Language is Changeable and Vocabulary has an Important Role in Acquisition
All languages are a tool which can be manipulated to serve the needs of those who use it. But language is always changeable; it caused there is no language can develop without the development of the society.  So that when the society develop, certaintly language also develop.Natural language has limitless vitality while artificial language shortens.
Anyone who has lived a reasonably long time will know that his children and their contemporaries are not using the same words, grammar and pronunciation that he learned as a child, because each generation has a different attitude to its language. Young people, especially, use a vast amount of new idioms, slang, and expressions. As time goes on, the introduction of widespread education, radio, television, mobile phone, the Internet and the greater mobility of the population, have sped up the process of language changing.
We know that language, oral and written, come from different varieties. Language varies according to person, topic, purpose, cultural background and context situation. Everyone is proficient in more than one of these social varieties of their native language. Language also varies with respect to regional, social class, and ethnic group differences. Such language varieties are characterized by distinctive structural and functional characteristics, and they constitute legitimate varieties and functional systems of communication within their respective socio-cultural niches. (Rod Ellis, 1997)
Language acquisition involves the study of vocabulary. Vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult sometimes.
Wilkins (1972) asserted, “Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.” The lexicologist McCarthy (1990) echoed the same message that no matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successfully he masters the sounds of a second language, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in that language cannot happen in any meaningful way. In most cases, language and words are linked together closely.

2.      Language Acquisition is also Cultural Acquisition
Raymond Raymond Williams thought that “culture” is one of the most complicated several words. A. Kroeber & Clyde Kluckhohn listed about 300 definitions for culture in a book Culture Concept and Definition Statement. Among the definition, there is one which concerns about culture and language: Language is the composition of culture, is the load of culture. In short, language and culture are merged tightly.
Patterns of language usage vary across cultures and reflect differences in values, norms, and beliefs about social roles and relationship in each culture. When children learn their first language, they learn the cultural values, norms, and beliefs that are characteristic of their cultures. To learn another language is to learn new norms, behaviors and beliefs that are appropriate in the new culture, and thus to extend one's socio-cultural competence to new environments. To add a new language, therefore, is to add a new culture.
Educational programs must be based on acknowledgement of, understanding of, respect for, and valuing of diverse cultural backgrounds. It is important for all language learners to develop attitudes of additive bilingualism and biculturalism. Without language, culture would not be possible; On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture and it reflects culture. Second language acquisition must understand their “language of the mind” because language acquisition, in fact, is inseparable from culture acquisition.

3.      Language Acquisition is A Long–term Process
We know that language acquisition is inseparable from its culture and culture acquisition can't be acquired in a short time. So language acquisition needs a reasonably long time. Language acquirer must go through different developmental stages and gradually grow in proficiency. Individual acquirer, however, move through these stages at variable rates. Rates of acquisition are influenced by multiple factors including an individual's educational background, first language background, learning style, cognitive style, motivation, personality and so on.
       Educational programs must recognize the length of time it takes to acquire the language skills necessary for success in school, college or university.
       The philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon said that Language acquisition is just like the understanding of the proverbs which needs time and knowledge. Deep knowledge of culture must connect with the true mastering of Deep the language.

4.      Motivation is the Stimulation of Second Language Acquisition
       Motivation is the generator to do something. Good motivation can improve work or study of something. Language acquisition is not a simple job but an affordable work, which needs long and sometimes painful process. Without everlasting motivation for it, it is impossible to study well.  Of course, it is no use only with motivation but also hard work.
       Some experiments show that holding of motivation can be great help for something. Motivation has always played as a central place in language acquisition.  When acquirer has a strong need for language acquisition, they will probably prosper, and vice versa. For inspiring the motivation is an important and useful way for language acquisition.

5.      Native Language Proficiency is of Benefit to Second Language Acquisition
       In the world, different nations normally have different languages; however, any language proficiency including native language surely contributes to second language acquisition because there is no language that exists without any rules. One can use one rule in this language and that at some cases.  So that it is useful for mastering the other language by comparison or imitation. And, in return, in learning a new language students also learn more about their own native language surely.
       Normally speaking, translator or interpreter with good knowledge of native language can do better than those of worse. Native language literacy abilities can assist to construct the meaning of second language. They bring this knowledge to the task of second language acquisition.

6.      Social Factors Affect the Second Language Acquisition
       Everyone knows that different people have lived in our society in one way or another. And the social factors affect our lives and also have a great impact on second language acquisition but probably do not influence it directly.  Instead, their effects are mediated by a number of variables. One of the variables is the acquirer's attitudes towards the language. Generally speaking, different attitudes will lead to different result.  Positive attitudes will certainly lead to successful learning of the language which will make the attitudes reinforced; in return similarly, negative attitudes towards the language will lead to bad result, and in return, consolidate its negative attitudes.
       Another variable is social contexts. Among them there is international language context.  Many languages-in particular English-are now widely used as international languages. They serve as a means of communication between speakers of different languages in a wide range of contexts: business and trade, academic and scientific, media and the arts, travel, tourism, and literature.  Learners who engage in international communication that involves the full resources of the standard language are more likely to develop a higher level of proficiency.

7.      Individual Acquirer Differences Differ in Second Language Acquisition
       There are five general factors that contribute to individual acquirer differences in some depth. These are age, aptitude, cognitive style, motivation, and personality. The commonly held view that children are more successful acquirers than adults is possibly because children have a greater memory capacity and are also able to acquirers focus more easily on the purely formal features of a language.  Fathman (1975) found that the order of acquisition twenty grammatical items remained constant in her sample of two hundred children aged from 6 to 15 years.
       Gardner (1980) has reported that aptitude is a major factor determining the level of success of second language acquisition.
Little is known about how personality and cognitive style influence second language acquisition, although there is a general belief that both are potentially extremely important.  Cognitive style is a term used to refer to the manner in which people perceive, conceptualize, organize, and recall information. Each person is considered to have a more or less consistent mode of cognitive functioning. “Open” or “close” person in character is different from acquisition of language.

C.    Theories of Second Language Acquisition
Stephen krashen's theory of second language acquisition (SLA)
             "Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill." Stephen Krashen.
             "Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers is concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding." Stephen Krashen.

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:

1.      The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen has concluded that there are two systems of language acquisition that are independent but related: the acquired system and the learned system.
·         The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language acquisition. Krashen privileges the acquired system over the learned system.
·         The learned system relates to formal instruction where students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language.

2.      The Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor hypothesis seeks to elucidate how the acquired system is affected by the learned system. When second language learners monitor their speech, they are applying their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and initiate their communication.
The amount of monitoring occurs on a continuum. Some language learners over-monitor and some use very little of their learned knowledge and are said to under-monitor. Ideally, speakers strike a balance and monitor at a level where they use their knowledge but are not overly inhibited by it.
  
3.      The Natural Order Hypothesis
This hypothesis argues that there is a natural order to the way second language learners acquire their target language. The order that the learners follow has four steps:
a.        They produce single words.
b.      They string words together based on meaning and not syntax.
c.       They begin to identify elements that begin and end sentences.
d.      They begin to identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange them to produce questions.

4.      The Input Hypothesis
In its most basic form, the input hypothesis argues that learners’ progress along the natural order only when they encounter second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the natural order. Therefore, if a learner is at step one from the above list; they will only proceed along the natural order when they encounter input that is at the second step.

5.      The Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter that impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Students who are motivated, confident, and relaxed about learning the target language have much more success acquiring a second language than those who are trying to learn with the affective filter in place.

D.    Practice of Second Language Acquisition
There are many methods or ways that can be used to study a second language. Methods or means chosen will depend on how quickly the master a second language, where we live and how much can we allocate funds to achieve our goals are. Combination of the methods or ways below will certainly gave the students a more optimal learning outcomes compared to just using one method alone.

1.      Learning in The Classroom  
When we implement the learning of language both in the classroom, we are always assisted by a teacher who can provide materials, encouragement and feedback and can be opposed to practice our second language skills. In order to organize learning a second language is good in the classroom, teachers need the resources of an authentic language learning. It is especially needed when we study a second language in our own country. Sources of learning the language used should be authentic in terms of pronunciation, intonation, accent and idiom.
In the absence of language learning resources as such, would be very difficult for a teacher to be able to convey both feelings and thoughts of people who use such language as first language. For that when teaching a second language teachers should only use the voice recordings narrated by native speakers. Visual teaching materials such as videos or films should also display an authentic culture of the second person. Do not use a video or movie that only shows the beauty of the country speaking a second language, but it has nothing to do with cultural issues of second language speakers. Videos or movies like that are usually intended only to tourists only. In addition the teacher / the school is required to provide newspapers and magazines in both languages ​​because it is a valid reading of two sources and always provide the latest information about the culture of both.

2.      Learning Self-taught.
This method can be done in a way to buy a CD or DVD learning a second language that many are sold in bookstores / tapes or can be ordered online via the Internet. Fundamental weakness of this learning method is the absence of accompanying teachers, so that when students need to ask, no one can answer. However, CD or DVD learning a second language is currently being developed in such a way that students can learn on their own. Student success in learning a second language by using this method will depend on the seriousness of the students in the learning and the quality of a CD or DVD learning a second language students to buy.

3.      The Exchange of Langauge
Learning a second language by using this method requires students to find native speakers who are studying a second language and who want to learn the mother tongue or first language of students, so the two can teach each other their respective languages​​. This can be done by accessing several sites on the Internet that offer these services. Another alternative method is to look for native speakers as a friend to correspond.
A second language teachers should encourage students to correspond with people speaking a second language. With a lot of correspondence students can practice how to write the context of everyday situations. In addition students will be able to exchange thoughts with native speakers of both languages​​, understand the attitudes and behavior which is the image and culture. Correspondence can also provide motivation for students to travel abroad which is a method of studying the latter.

4.      Traveled and Lived for Some Time Abroad
By traveling abroad or even the opportunity to stay for some time abroad, students will be able to understand the culture of local people. He can see and realize the similarities nor the differences between people and the culture of the nation's culture whose language is being learned.
Besides traveling abroad will also make students able to communicate using a second language better than just relying on second language learning in the country, because in this new environment students find no one able to use the first language, so he "forced "should always use a second language to communicate with people around him in order to survive.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ellis, Rod. (1997), Second Language Acquisition, New Zealand:                              Oxford university Press;
Krashen, Stephen D. (1982), Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition,       University of Southern California: Pergamon Press Inc;
Krashem, Stephen D. (1987), Principle and Practice in Second Language Acquisition,       Hall International;
ZhangJianjia, Jianjia Zhang. (2005), General Principles of Second Language           Acquisition, Xiangnan University

Tidak ada komentar:

Posting Komentar