THE NATURE, PROBLEM AND STRESS AT THE FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

A.    The Nature of Language Acquisition

This section discusses the process of language acquisition that is the nature of the point of view of some experts that is Noam Chomsky, Derek Bickerton and David McNeill. It basically is a process that is the nature of language acquisition is that the language acquisition process is determined by innate knowledge and innate properties that are universal for experienced or shared by all humans (Brown, 2000:34).

a.      Noam Chomsky

As a manifestation of the outcry over behaviorism in the late era of the 1950s, Chomsky, who is a native attack Skinner's theory which states that language acquisition is influenced by nature or nurture the environment?. Chomsky argued that language acquisition is based on nature because he said when the child was born he had to be equipped with a specific tool that makes it capable of studying a language. The tool is called the Language Acquisition Device (language acquisition device / LAD) which is universal as evidenced by the similarities in the children in their language acquisition process (Dardjowidjojo, 2003:235-236).

Skinner thought to be too simplistic when he averaged behave like human knowledge acquisition process with the process of gaining knowledge of animals, namely rats and pigeons are used as subjects in experiments, because according to the natives approach, for human language is a social phenomenon and the evidence of human presence (Pateda, 1991:102). There are also other reasons why the natives approach to the theory disagrees Skinner. These reasons relate to the language itself, according to the natives language is something that only humans have language for a system that has certain rules, creative, and depending on the structure (Dardjowidjojo, 2003:236). Still in relation to language, as well as the complexity of the language, the natives believes the language is a mental activity and should not be considered as physical activity, this is why the nativist approach is also called the mentalistic approach (Pateda, 1991:101).

b.      Derek Bickerton

Another supporter of the process of language acquisition that is nature is Derek Bickerton (Brown, 2000:35). He did some research on the provision that brought humans from birth (innateness) and get some significant evidence. The evidence reveals that humans actually have "biologically programmed" to switch from one stage of language to the next stage of language and the human hard-wired from birth to produce a specific linguistic properties at a certain developmental age as well (Brown, 2000:35). Thus language acquisition is not determined by the conditions given in children but is determined by a process running by itself since the child is born into the world along with knowledge of the language and the age of maturity of the child.

c.       David McNeill

a)      In Brown (2000:24) states that the LAD consists of four innate linguistic properties, namely: The ability to distinguish sounds of human speech (speech sounds) of the other sounds in the environment

b)      Ability to organize the data into a variety of language classes that can be refined or improved in the future.

c)      Knowledge that only certain types of linguistic systems that are likely to be used and other types of systems are not likely to be used.

d)     The ability to conduct an evaluation of the system is constantly evolving language so it can build the simplest system of the existing linguistic input.

In answer to the question of how people learn the language, Bell (1981:24) also tried to put forward some views Chomsky, namely:

a)      Activity occurring within the mind, such as how to process, store and retrieve knowledge from these deposits, which is the primary focus and not the physical embodiment of knowledge.

b)      Learning is a matter of "reasonable acceptance" of the data received by the brain through the five senses.

c)      Individual's ability to respond to new situations in which if only armed with a stimuli-response habit alone will not be able to make the individual is ready.

d)     Learning is a mental process because it is better to know and cannot express in words rather than speak without understanding.

B.     The Problem of Language Acquisition

Investigators of early language acquisition have relied mainly on naturalistic observations. The usual method has been to follow a child and write down each utterance, noting the pronunciation and apparent meaning. Many investigators have kept diaries of how their children’s language developed from the first word on. Nowadays tape recorder and video-tape systems have either supplemented or replaced paper and pencil. Children are usually recorded for set periods of time in their home while the observer keeps additional notes on the context and each child’s activities. Tape recordings have two advantages over a paper and pencil method: first, they record what others say to the child as well as what the child says, and second, the tapes can be checked and rechecked afterwards for accuracy in their transcription. Although video-tapes-record the context and the children’s activities as well as they utterances, this method of observation is harder to use in the home because video cameras are much more intrusive than tape recorders.

The next step has been to take each utterance and by drawing on its context decided what it meant. The context normally includes what is known about the children, their routines, their toys, and their activity at the time of the utterance as well as what others may have been saying. This use of context in interpreting what children most probably meant is known as rich interpretation. Essentially, it assumes that children intended to communicate something by their utterances and it allows the investigator to make an interpretation appropriate to the context.

The third step is to use these data to make inferences about the nature of the acquisition process. In addition to the utterances produced by the child, investigators may take into account the child’s cognitive and social development; the eventual goal of acquisition (attainment of an adult like use of language); and the information available to the child about language (primarily information from the speech of others).

Naturalistic observations are generally complemented by experimental studies to follow up the observations and test specific predictions. In language acquisition, experiment have been used mainly to study children’s comprehension to find out how much they really understand and to what degree they rely on contextual clues.

When children use their first words, sometimes between the ages of one and two years, they begin by talking about what they already know. In effect, the “here and now” provides the propositional content of one and two word utterances. Children also rely on what they know about communicating without language when they start to communicate with language. Their first speech-act assertions and requests are built on what they know about conveying interest and conveying desires. Children also seen treat to convey thematic information with their earliest utterances. At the one word stage, for example, children may introduce a topic to start a conversation and then treat it as given when they go on to provide further new information. By the two word stage they often combine given and new in a single utterance and focal stress to indicate what is new.

What young children say is complemented by what they appear to understand. This is usually harder to asses because they rely on all kinds of non-linguistic cues direction of gaze, gestures, and the context itself in trying interpreting what adults say to them. At the same time, adults systematically modify their speech in an effort to tailor it for children whose understanding of language is still limited. The adults’ goal is to make sure children as much as possible. The modifications  they make to this end have the incidental side effect of providing children with miniature language lessons on how to talk about the ‘her and now” and how to carry on conversations.

C.    The stress of language acquisition

1.      Acquisition in phonology

·         Process of language acquisition

Children first acquire the small set of sounds common to all languages of the world

o   Eg) [p, s, b, m, d, k] but not [T]

Order of acquisition

o   Manner: nasals>glides>stops>liquids>fricatives>affricates

o   Place: labials>velars>alveolars>palatals

o   Voicing

§  In early stages children may not distinguish voicing of consonants

§  If they distinguish bet p/b, they also distinguish others like t/d, s/z

2.      Acquisition in Syntax

In the holophrastic stage, children have knowledge of some syntactic rules.

a.       17-month-old children distinguish between “Ernie is tickling Bert” and “Bert is tickling Ernie.”

b.      relying on word order rules (syntax)

Age 2;0

ü  Begin to put words together

Age 3;0

ü  consistent use of function morphemes complex sentence structures such as coordinated sentences  and embedded sentences of various kinds

3.      Acquisition in Pragmatics

Pragmatic aspects (knowing contexts) are acquired relatively late wrong use of pronouns (3 or 4-yr-olds)

ü  “He hit me” when mommy doesn’t know who “he” is.

Difficulty in shifting reference

ü  “You want to take a walk”  meaning “I”

Wrong use of articles

a.       Use of the definite article as the indefinite article for introducing a new referent

b.      They assume that his listener knows who he is talking about

HAMLET BY H.G. Wyatt

I. Read the Short Story Given!

Answer the following questions bellow!

1.       What do you know about Hamlet?

Ø  Hamlet is a young prince of Denmark.

2.       What happened to his father? And why?

Ø  He died suddenly in a mysterious way. He had died from the bite of a snake while he was asleep.

3.       What strange story was told to Hamlet?

Ø  For three nights in succession guard of soldiers that kept watch by nights before the castle had seen a ghost.

4.       What did the ghost tell Hamlet?

Ø  About his father that it was given out that sleeping in orchard a serpent that did sting thy father’s life now wears in crown, it then commanded Hamlet to revenge his foul and most unnatural murder.

5.       What strange resolution did Hamlet make?

Ø  In future would behave outwardly as a madman, for in that way he thought his uncle would be most unlikely to suspect him and he would be able in that way to hide his feelings better.

6.       How did Hamlet make use of wondering artists?

Ø  He taking one of the players aside, he asked him if he know the play called “ The murder of Gonzago”, in which a duke named Gonzago was poisoned in his garden by a near relative who after wards married his widow.

7.       What happened when the show was being performed?

Ø  Hamlet saw his mother  grow pale, when Gonzago and his wife were seen conversing, and she about her husband died. And Claudius was panic – stricken when the next scene show how he win the love of Gonzago’s wife and Gonzago was shown asleep in his orchad.

8.       Why did Claudius send Hamlet to England?

Ø  Before he realized that hamlet was dangerous for him, and was beginning to be afraid of him.

9.       How did Claudius make use of Laertes anger against the slayer of his father Polonius?

Ø  Leartes was reputed to be the better fencer and the king persuaded him to use a sharp pointed sword ( which was forbidden in matches ) and to put poson on it. So that even scratch would be provefutal.

10.   What make the Queen die? How did Claudius, Laertes, and Hamlet die?

Ø  The queen die because she was drinking a poisoned bowl of wine. Claudius was stabbed by Hamlet with the poisoned weapon. Laertes die when he was tight with Hamlet.

II. Find the Short Story Term!

1.         Character :

Ø  Hamlet, The King, Claudius, The Queen, The Ghost, Horatio, Polonius, Ophelia, and Leartes.

2.         Characterization :

      Hamlet : Young Prince of Denmark, the central of this  story who protagonist, and also a thoughtful young man who loves his father

      The King : Hamlet’s father, he is wise, and kind

      Claudius : Hamlet’s uncle, The King of Denmark who devious and manipulative

      The Queen : Hamlet’s mother, The queen of Denmark who cruel

      The Ghost : Hamlet’s father ghost

      Horatio : Hamlet’s best friend, he is friendly, kind, and also helpful

      Polonius : A wisdom person, and he has an annoying habit of spying and eavesdropping

      Ophelia : Polonius’s daughter, she is dutiful daughter, and she loves Helmet

      Leartes : The daughter of Ophelia, anger

3.         Setting :

Ø  The play is set at Elsinore, the royal court of the King of Denmark. The play begins in the open battlements of the castle on a bitterly cold night, then shifts inside the castle to the formality and conventions of the court. A total of two scenes take place on the battlements; the rest occur in various locations inside the royal court, except for a brief scene at the cemetery.

4.         Plot :

Ø  The plot of this story is forward

5.         Climax :

Ø  The climax of the story is the Hamlet-Laertes duel. Claudius has fixed the outcome of the duel in such a way that Hamlet will perish no matter what. But there are also several events related to the duel. Queen Gertrude accidentally drinks some poison intended for Hamlet and dies. Hamlet, wounded by Laertes' poisoned sword, stabs his opponent. Before he dies, Laertes tells Hamlet about the evil plots of Claudius and the poison now coursing through Hamlet's veins. He tells the wounded prince his death is very near. Before he dies, Hamlet stabs Claudius and forces him to drink poison. When the Prince of Norway enters, the dying Hamlet makes him ruler over Denmark.

6.         Resolution :

Ø  Hamlet called his faithful friend Horatio to his side, and begged him to make known the true story of his father’s murder and of its revenge. Horatio had made a move as if to drink the poisoned wine and so accompany his friend in death, but when Hamlet begged him, he promised to live on and tell to the world the full story of the tragedy. Hamlet had just enough life left in him to hear Horatio’s promise: then, whispering the words the rest is silence! He sank down dead. Such was the end of the brave and noble Prince of Denmark. He was mourned as one who would have made a splendid king, and he was carried to his burial with soldiers music, and a people’s mourning.

7.         Moral Message :

Ø  no matter how small the crime will certainly revealed the truth

III. Make a summary of Hamlet by W.G. Wyatt!

The King of Denmark is killed by an apparent snakebite while sleeping in the garden. His brother Claudius assumes the throne and marries the widowed Queen, Gertrude, within weeks of the King's death. Hamlet, the Prince of Denmark and the dead King's son, mourns for his father and anguishes over his mother's hasty remarriage, considering it as unnatural as incest.

The play opens outside the castle grounds, where three guards have been witnessing the appearance of a Ghost who looks like the dead King. They ask the Prince and his friend Horatio to come see the Ghost. Prince Hamlet speaks to the apparition, who claims to be the spirit of his dead father. In a private conversation, the Ghost tells Hamlet that Claudius, in fact, murdered him. The Ghost asks Hamlet to avenge his murder. Hamlet takes his responsibility to seek vengeance for his father very seriously, perhaps too seriously.

Hamlet is in love with Ophelia, the daughter of Polonius (the Lord Chamberlain); however, the father commands Ophelia to reject Hamlet's advances. Polonius and his son Laertes believe Hamlet will never marry Ophelia since her rank is beneath his. Although Ophelia is very much in love with Hamlet, she is an obedient child; as a result, she complies with her father's commands. Satisfied that his sister is now safe, Laertes goes off to France in pursuit of a good time. Ophelia and her father are left to look after one another. When Hamlet feigns madness in order to observe the new King and his mother, Polonius tells the King that Hamlet's madness is because of unrequited love for Ophelia. He orders Ophelia to return Hamlet's advances to test this theory. Hamlet spurns Ophelia, however, breaking her heart.

The King begins to suspect that Hamlet knows about the murder, but Hamlet is hesitant and full of anxiety over how to proceed. When at last he moves to punish Claudius, he accidentally kills Polonius. Ophelia, on hearing the news of her father's death, loses her mind and drowns in the river. Claudius, now more fearful than ever that Hamlet will eventually expose him, makes arrangements for Hamlet to die. Hamlet, however, escapes Claudius' plans and returns to Elsinore to exact revenge.

Laertes, now seeking revenge against Hamlet on behalf of his father and sister, challenges Hamlet to a duel. Secretly, he has conspired with Claudius to make sure Hamlet dies in the battle. The sword he uses is poisoned, as is Hamlet's drink. During the duel, the Queen accidentally drinks the poisoned cup and dies. Hamlet and Laertes are both seriously wounded. Before dying, Laertes confesses all to Hamlet, telling him the details of Claudius' plot against him, including the fact that he will die shortly from the poison. Hamlet kills Claudius, then implores his friend Horatio to tell the world the truth about the tragedy. Horatio lives to clear Hamlet's name, and the Prince of Norway comes to restore order to Denmark.

THE END OF THE PARTY BY GRAHAM GREENE

Analyze that story based on instrinstic elements:

•   Setting : At the Peter and Francis house and Mrs. Henne Falcon’s House.

•     Characterization:

1. Peter Morton :  Peter is the stronger person and always protect his anxious brother.
2. Francis Morton :  Francis has phobia, afraid of the dark, anxious person.
3. Nurse : She is the twins’s nurse and she is not good and not bad person.
4.  Mrs. Henne Falcon : An elegant woman and she is kind too.
5. Joyce : An arrogant person because he likes to mock Francis if Francis was scared about the darkness.
6.  Mabel Warren : An extra cast in this story, bad child. 

• Plot:

The plot of this story is foreshadowing.

•    Conflict:

The night January the fifth, when Mrs Henne-Falcon was giving her children’s party, Francis had a nightmare, anticipating the horrors he would have to go through later that day when he was to play hide and seek in the dark. Just before the party Francis “felt ill, a sick empty sensation in his stomach and a rapidly beating heart, but he knew the cause was only fear, fear of the party, fear of being made to hide by himself in the dark, unaccompanied by Peter and with no night-light to make a blessed breach.”

•  Climax:

At the party, Francis tried to be strong, he faced this game. Then, when the lights are turned out for this game, Francis is literally scared to death. His brother tries to comfort Francis by touching his arm, only to find that was the final unendurable anguish for his petrified sibling. When the lights are turned back on, the adults find Francis dead.

•    Resolution:

Peter tried to make him calm down then he bombarded the drooping form with thoughts of safety, but he was conscious that the fear continued. “They are beginning to whisper together. They are tired of looking for us. The lights will go on soon. We shall have won. Don’t be afraid. That was someone on the stairs. I believe it’s Mrs Henne- Falcon. Listen. They are feeling for the lights.” Peter said. In the case above their heads a loose book shifted under a touch. “Only Joyce, only Mabel Warren, only Mrs Henne- Falcon,” a crescendo of reassuring thought before the chandelier burst, like a fruit-tree, into bloom.

Peter continued to hold the clenched fingers in an arid and puzzled grief. It was not merely that his brother was dead. His brain, too young to realize the full paradox.

•       Theme:

The theme of this story is the fear of the dark.

The central message of this story is Don’t be silly. You know there’s nothing to be afraid of in the dark. This story also tells us about the fear will disturb and scar our childhood, it can even kill you.

•   Point of view:

The writer as a third person in his story. He wanted tell us that there are parallels between his personal history and the story of Francis. In the story, Francis feels different and alone, and he is bullied by other children at the party because of his fear of the dark. The writer was also bullied during his childhood, and attempted suicide several times as a teenager.

 Make a summarize of that story :

The End of the Party tells the story of  the eleven-year-old twin brothers Francis and Peter who are invited to the birthday party of a school friend, the climax of which is always a game of hide-and-seek in the dark. Francis, however, has a fear of the dark, and will do anything not to attend. He pretends to have a cold, tells his parents and his nurse that he does not want to go, but is forced to attend anyway. When he came to the party, they started a game then the lights are turned out for this game, Francis is literally scared to death. His brother, Peter, tried to comfort Francis by touching his arm, and Francis tried to be strong and fight his fear, but he lost the hope and he thought that he can do it. Then,when the lights are turned back on, they find that Francis dead.

Discourse Comprehension and Production

 Discourse Comprehension

In fact, when we are communicating, we face not only a sentence but also even more than one sentence. People carefully design each sentence in their utterance to fit into the discourse they are taking in part. In their communication, people usually take part in stories, conversations, descriptions, explanations and other ’natural’ talk. Again, the listeners’ task is to comprehend the meaning conveyed through speakers’ utterance (in this case discourse).

Senses of Discourse

Discourse can be defined as the use of language which is a long and serious treatment or discussion of a subject in speaking or writing. Discourse can also means an integration of sentences as a language constructor.

Discourse is a complete integration of language. Therefore, in grammatical hierarchy, discourse is the highest grammatical integration. As a complete integration of language, discourse contains of intact concept, idea, thought and feeling which is understandable by the reader (in written discourse) and the listener (in spoken discourse).

Discourse is formed from several sentences that fulfill some grammatical rules and the other discourse rules. Discourse must consist of cohesion and coherence. Cohesion means there is a harmony among elements of the discourse. Coherence means the whole content of the discourse fits together well and truly.

Tools of Discourse

To be able to comprehend the discourse, there are some tools which can be used. The tools consist of two kinds of tools. Those are based on grammatical tool and based on semantic tool.

Based on grammatical tool, we can see there are several kinds of it such as in the following numbers.

• Conjunctions (and, after, before, although, because, etc.): By the use of conjunctions, the relationship between one sentence and the other will be more explicit and will be clearer rather than without conjunctions.
•  Pronouns (I, they, her, its, us, etc.): By using pronouns as anaphoric reference, so that the same part of sentence needn’t to be repeated but it can be changed by the pronouns.
• Elliptical construction (the omission of the same part of sentence that exists in another sentence): By using elliptical construction, the discourse seems to be more effective.

And then, the several kinds of semantic tool are as follows.

•    Using contrast relationship among sentences
•  Using general-specific and specific-general relationship
•  Using equivalent relationship
• Using cause-effect relationship
•   Using purpose relationship

Discourse Production

As stated above, the discourse usually involved in people communication are conversations, descriptions, explanations and other ’natural’ talk. Each of them has harder structure than sentence. Each of them requires careful planning-problem solving-on the part of speakers.

Basically, such those situations divide into two categories; dialogue (when two people or more talking together) and monologue (when a person talking alone). Speakers ought to face the distinct problem when they face those two categories. When taking part in dialogue, speakers’ talk has to cooperate with the other’s talk. Different from the former, speakers have to plan the whole discourse without intervention of others when they are taking part in monologue.

We can take an example of dialogue that is conversation. Actually, the planning of conversation is not as simple as it seems. We usually just see that conversation is just begun with greeting, then talk each other and ended by parting. However, the speakers of the conversation participants must have their own goal. And they should solve the problem to coordinate their speech so that they could achieve their goals.

Basically, the conversation has natural setting. This can be used to solve the participants’ goals. The natural setting consists of opening conversation, turn taking and closing conversation. In opening conversation, participants should open a conversation to begin. One person gets another’s signal and attention, and the other show willingness to talk. In turn taking, each participant cooperate each other to get a chance for talking and conveying their idea. And in the closing conversation, the participants should make an agreement when they have to close conversation. They shouldn’t bother with an elaborate closing.

For example of monologue is a description. Description is one type of discourse in which the speaker describes something. Usually, we get a description from a story which is included in written discourse. The writers often face some problem when they try to describe something. The first problem is level which shows at what level the writers should describe something. Then, content provides us which part of the level of something the writers should include and omit. The third is order that tells us what order the writers should put the content in. Finally, the relation gives us how the writers should relate the parts to each other.

We can now conclude that discourse has structure which is complex and harder than sentence. There are two kinds of discourse structure, those are hierarchical and local. In all structured discourse, speakers have at least some problems to solve. At the very least they have to select the sentence they will say, and that brings us to the next topic.

Compiled by : Tiara Purnamasari

HOW TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT PERSON FOR BEING YOUR BEST FRIENDS:

Many people argue that a best friend as a faithful sibling. As a people, we can make a friendship with anyone in the world. But not everyone can be your best friends. You have to be careful in choosing your best friends. There are many fake friends outside who just take the advantages of yourself. For example, when you are happy and have lots of money, many people are competing to be your friends. But when you are in the hard situation, you are sad and poor, there are only one or two person who want to be your BEST FRIENDS. So, I give you the tips to choose the right person for being your best friends. READ IT CAREFULLY!!!

• Honestly :

Everybody in this world have knew that an honestly is very expensive. To be honest is the most important thing that you must take care to choose someon who will be your best friend. When she is not honest at the first meeting, I’m sure that she will continue to lie on you. So looking for an honest man, okay girls?

•  Not selfish:

Every person does have a selfish of theirself. But, if you have a friend who always concern with her bussiness rather than a common bussiness is definitely she is not a best friend, girls!!

•  Can keep you secret:

As a people we definitely have a problem. Such as problem about love, your family, or maybe your friends. For example if you were angry then sharing about a friend to your other friends,  can they keep your secret or otherwise? As a best friend she must keep your secret, whateveryour problem. So, if you want to share your problem with your friends, you must be careful in choosing them!! They must be able to keep your secret, girls. If they can’t keep yor secret, it means they are not your best friends!!

•  Always remind you if you make mistakes:

if I was made a mistake, for example, I have a problem with my boyfriend then I want to do something that is not reasonable, my best friends always remind me to move on and keep me strong. Because a best friend will always take you to the right way instead of misleading you.

•  Always there beside you in all situations:

Your life is not always be a beautiful life. Sometimes you can be happy, have everything and can do whatever you want. And sometimes you can be sad and have not everything. So if you want to find a best friend, she have to be there in whatever your situation. If she never be there when you are sad, you should leave her!! Find the other who wants lend her shoulder to support your sadness. Be smart in choosing your best friends, girls!!

•  Want to make sacrifices in your difficult times:

A best friend will always try to help you. She never asks anything in return from you. She will feels very happy to help you. But remember, if she needs your help, you are also must make sacrifices for her.

•  Feel comfortable when you there beside your best friend:

If you want to choose someone to be your best friend, the most popular thing  is that you never cover up your shortcomings in front of them, and do not show your excrescent in front of them. She never cares about who you are. And  a best friend will always make comfortable conditions in your friendship, so do not wear your mask, girls.

•  Be familiar with your family:

A best friend is definitely able to familiarize herself with your parents. She can be polite if there are your parents at your home. And then she also will honor your parents same as she respects her own parents.

1. Those are the tips to choose the right person for being your best friend from me. Hopely it can be useful for all readers. 
2. THE MOST IMPORTANT THING IN CHOOSING SOMEONE TO BE YOUR BEST FRIEND IS YOUR FEELINGS. SO YOU MUST USE YOUR FEELINGS TO FIND ONE OF THEM. GOOD LUCK FOR TRYING MY TIPS, GIRLS…